“冷”看反垄断法从对“抑制不足”的担忧到对“过度抑制”的担忧

作者 | 张宏斌

北京市联德律师事务所合伙人、律师

目次

I. 抑制不足(false negative) V. 过度抑制(false positive)

II. 从对抑制不足(false negative)的担忧转折到对过度抑制(false positive)的担忧,这一转折对反垄断案件的深刻影响

III. 对中国反垄断法的反思

《“冷”看反垄断法》已经是第三篇了,这里有两条始终贯穿的线索,一条线索是,反垄断法是在用“看得见的手”干预市场的“失灵”,这里有两个条件,一是市场是真的“失灵”了(分辨市场的“失灵”和市场竞争机制是很大的挑战!),二是干预本身是“有效”的,这往往需要实践的检验;第二条线索是,反垄断法必须基于逻辑而成为一门技术性强的学科,使她摆脱“政策”之左右,无论是这部部门法,还是相关的法律共同体,唯有使之成为一门技术,方能赢得世人的尊敬!

这两条线索又是汇合的,即,警惕以“干预”之名行“管制”之实,捍卫市场经济!

本篇文章试图在第一条线索上继续展开,正如上段所说,这条线索不是独立于第二条线索,二者互为“知己”而相互“支持”和渗透。

相关阅读:

1. “冷”看反垄断法——管制和削减市场自由的“成本”

2. “冷”看反垄断法(二)——针对排他行为的合理分析原则

I. 抑制不足(false negative) V. 过度抑制(false positive)

31. 反垄断法始终纠结在false negative v. false positive之间,“false negative”是指,对于排他行为,如果不制止,会抑制竞争;相反,“false positive”是指,对于排他行为,其往往具有促进竞争的一面,如果过度制止,这反而会抑制竞争而非促进竞争。例如,在标志性的美国铝业案[1]中,Judge Hand表达了这种“两难”,一方面,他写到反垄断法的目的之一在于保护以小企业为元素的市场结构,这种结构被普遍认为更能实现充分的竞争,即使这可能引发社会成本或代价[2],这体现了对“false negative”的担忧;另一方面,Judge Hand指出,反垄断法不应该制止有效率的垄断者[3](或者,换句话说,有效率的排他行为),这体现了他对“false positive”的担忧。

32. 上世纪70年代开始是美国反垄断法的分水岭,在此之前,对限制或排他的行为(无论是横向的、或纵向的限制或排他行为),更容易为被认定为违反反垄断法,这一时期,更多体现了对“抑制不足”(false negative)的担忧。以上述的美国铝业案为例,美国政府指控美国铝业不断扩张产能的行为阻止了潜在竞争者进入相关市场而产生了排他的后果(Exclusion), 尽管Judge Hand对“false negative”和“false positive”给与了似乎是同等的关注(见上述第31段),Judge Hand支持了美国政府的指控[4],他选择了站在“抑制不足”(false negative)一边。

33. 事后回顾该案,将美国铝业不断扩张产能的行为视为“排他”予以谴责,后果更可能是挫伤和抑制了市场的竞争(false positive),因为,经营者(无论是否拥有市场支配地位)扩张产量的行为本身就是竞争的过程(这本身是因竞争的压力而导致,这说明“垄断者”根本无法“躺平”),其后果是更多的产品和更低的价格而有利于消费者,应被肯定而不是否定。[5]

34. 如上述第32段, 自上世纪70年代开始,对过度抑制(“false positive”)的担忧逐渐被重视,超过了对抑制不足(“false negative”)的担忧,特别是对滥用市场支配地位的指控和涉及知识产权的场景,这种根本性的转变回应了社会经济结构的变化(制造业和高科技产业的发展),并且归功于芝加哥经济学派的集体努力,他们达成的共识是,市场中的竞争机制是普遍起作用的,这会约束看起来具有优势地位的经营者,因此,特别是经营者的单方行为往往是竞争的约束下而作出的具有“效率”的行为,而非“垄断”或“滥用”行为[6],学术的发展促使反垄断法完成了根本性的变革。

35. 于1978年出版的《THE ANTITRUST PARADOX》具有里程碑的意义,作者Judge Bork认为,美国反垄断法的唯一的立法目的在于保护消费者福利(这区别于美国铝业案中所说的保护由小企业作为构成元素的经济结构的立法目的[7]),基于消费者的福利,即使是横向的协同协议(价格固定、分割市场等),也应该免于指责那些具有提升经济效率的横向行为;更为重要的是,对于具有市场支配地位的单方排他行为(独家交易、搭售、拒绝交易、价格歧视等),不应该仅仅因为其会产生排他的效果而予以指责,除非是能够实实在在的证明产生了反竞争的效果。

按照Judge Bork的观点,可以这样理解,单方的排他行为往往具有经济效率(例如,实现了纵向的“integration”而产生了更高的经济效率并提升了消费者福利),而其排他的效果往往是附属的(“ancillary”)或者是少有的(“very uncommon”),因此,对于经济效率的证明,潜在的(potential)即可满足证明标准,而对于竞争的损害的证明,必须要有明确的证据,特别是,Bork不同意采纳所谓的“incipiency”的标准,即,处于“初期”的反竞争效果,因为,采纳这样的标准实际上是在保护低效率的竞争者。

36. Judge Bork的观点集中体现了上世纪70年代的最新的学术成就,革命性的影响了此后的反垄断法的案例的走向,这集中表现在“合理分析”原则被广泛使用,而其直接的结果是原告举证难度被大幅提升(例如,原告要完成反竞争的效果的证明标准是有难度的),这使得反垄断法开始走向“沉寂”。 [8]

37. 此后,以Salop教授等学者为代表的后芝加哥学派着力于在抑制不足(false negative)和过度抑制(false positive)之间寻找新的分析框架,他们一方面坚持芝加哥学派的基本立场[9],同时,他们更有信心提供新的分析框架来更精准的评估排他行为对竞争的损害程度;例如,在Krattenmaker和Salop合著的《Anticompetitive Exclusion: Raising Rivals' Costs To Achieve Power over Price》一文中,作者写到:

“we do not believe that eco nomic theory or antitrust policy suggests that virtually all exclusion claims are chimerical. Rather, employing the methods of analysis set forth in this Article, we demonstrate that, in carefully defined circumstances, certain firms can attain monopoly power by making arrangements with their sup pliers that place their competitors at a cost disadvantage. Our central ar gument is that claims of anticompetitive exclusion should be judged according to whether the challenged practice places rival competitors at a cost disadvantage sufficient to allow the defendant firm to exercise monop oly power by raising its price”

38. 后芝加哥学派提供的分析框架对现代反垄断法的影响极为深刻,自上世纪八十年代以来的众多广受瞩目的案件中,我们都可以看到后芝加哥学派的影响力[10];但是,尽管如此,他们仍然属于芝加哥学派,在基本的立场上,仍然是将对过度抑制(false positive)的担忧置于对抑制不足(false negative)的担忧之上,近几年的QUALCOMM案[11]和AMERICAN EXPRESS案[12]是典型的代表案例。

II. 从对抑制不足(false negative)的担忧转折到对过度抑制(false positive)的担忧,这一转折对反垄断案件的深刻影响

39. 对于横向的价格固定行为,以Socony-Vacuum 案[13]为代表,一直被严格的认定为本质违法(per-se illegal)[14];这一规则直到1979年的著名的BMI案[15]被彻底扭转,在该案中,针对被告BMI提供的电视作品著作权的一揽子许可(blanket license),CBS指控其构成价格固定(price-fixing),美国最高法院没有沿用Socony-Vacuum 案确立的本质违法规则,[16]认为一揽子许可不构成“赤裸裸”的价格固定,应适用合理分析原则[17]。BMI案的影响非常深远而不限于一揽子许可行为;但仅就一揽子许可行为而言,适用合理分析原则,相当于为一揽子许可行为给与了一定程度的“避风港”,这为以后大量涌现的著作权集体许可和专利池“扫清”了法律上的风险。

40. 对于纵向的价格固定行为,Leegin 案[18]没有沿用自Dr.Miles 案以来适用的本质违法规则,而开始适用合理分析原则[19];至此之后,几乎没有见到原告能够在合理分析原则下成功指控纵向价格固定违反反垄断法的案例。

41. 对于单方的滥用市场支配地位行为,Trinko 案[20]无疑是迄今最有影响力的案例之一!通过阐明适用合理分析原则,Trinko 案对Aspen 案作出了缩限,尽管Scalia也认为对具有市场支配地位的经营者的单方行为应通过特殊的镜片予以观察,[21]Scalia 的“caution”却成为此后被更为广泛引用的法谚:

[A]pplying the requirement of Section 2 【滥用行为】can be difficult because the means of illicit exclusion, like the means of legitimate competition, are myriad. Mistaken inferences and the resulting false condemnations are especially costly, because they chill the very conduct the antitrust laws are designed to protect.[22]

III. 对中国反垄断法的反思

42. 中国《反垄断法》(2022修正)第十七条和第十八条分别禁止横向协同行为和纵向的限制行为,第二十条规定了豁免的情况;第二十二条规定了禁止滥用市场支配地位,其中包含了适用合理分析原则的空间。我们可以很容易的把这些法条与上述第39段至第41段引用的案例对应起来。

43. 但是,法条无法反映出法条背后变迁的历史,在我们审视从对抑制不足(false negative)的担忧转折到对过度抑制(false positive)的担忧这一段历史后,也许会对中国反垄断法过去十年的经历和未来走向有更深入和独立的思考!

44. 通过成文法的方式可以一天建成一个新的罗马,这是后发国家的优势;但是,建成罗马的历史依然值得借鉴!

45. 实践是检验真理的唯一标准!

46. 捍卫市场经济!

暂时写到这里。

注释(上下滑动阅览)

【1】United States v. Alcoa, 148 F.2d 416 (2d Cir. 1945)。

【2】“Throughout the history of these statutes it has been constantly assumed that one of their purposes was to perpetuate and preserve, for its own sake and in spite of possible cost, an organization of industry in small units which can effectively compete with each other.” Id.

【3】“The successful competitor, having been urged to compete, must not be turned upon when he wins.” Id.

【4】“[W]e can think of no more effective exclusion than progressively to embrace each new opportunity as it opened, and to face every newcomer with new capacity already geared into a great organization, having the advantage of experience, trade connections, and the elite of personnel.” Id.

【5】例如,“Sellers may enter or expand output as much as they please, at the potential expense of rivals but to the definite benefit of consumers: the growing producer will be able to sell its greater supplies only at the going price or less. Growth by the more efficient producers is an engine of lower prices, to be applauded.” 见A.a. Poultry Farms, Inc., et al., Plaintiffs-appellants, v. Rose Acre Farms, Inc., Defendant-appellee, 881 F.2d 1396 (7th Cir. 1989)。

【6】例如:“That portion of Chicago School thought that addresses industrial organization derives from a single basic principle: Markets in the real world are generally highly competitive, constrained only by real costs of operation. It follows from this proposition that markets operate at a position very near to that which might be called "efficient"--efficient given the costs that firms must face. It further follows from the proposition, again given the presumption of general competitiveness, that actions taken in the market by a single firm generally represent a means for advancing the interests of the firm by providing value to consumers. Put conversely, if a firm's practices did not provide value to consumers, the firm would fail in the competitive battle. Thus, there is a presumption in Chicago School analysis that individual firm practices generally benefit competition and consumers, rather than the reverse. This is the basis that led the Chicago School to be critical of, if not scathing toward, the expansion of antitrust law condemning industrial practices from the earliest years--such as Standard Oil (7)--and most especially in the years following the second New Deal. (8)”。摘自GEORGE L. PRIEST于on June 26, 2007在the Federalist Society's Conference on the Contributions of Judge Robert H. Bork上的讲话。

【7】见上述第31段。

【8】例如,“And because the relevant question is a comparison between reality and a hypothetical state of affairs, to require actual proof of reduced output is often to require the impossible—tantamount to saying that the Sherman Act does not apply at all.” See, Ohio v. American Express Co., 138 S. Ct. 2274, at at 2301.

【9】见注释6。

【10】可以阅读Intel, Toys-R-Us, Omega, Microsoft 等广受瞩目的案例。

【11】Federal Trade Commission v. Qualcomm Inc., No. 19-16122 (9th Cir. 2020).

【12】Ohio v. American Express Co., 138 S. Ct. 2274.

【13】United States v. Socony-Vacuum Oil Co., Inc., 310 U.S. 150 (1940).

【14】“Under the Sherman Act, a combination formed for the purpose and with the effect of raising, depressing, fixing, pegging, or stabilizing the price of a commodity in interstate or foreign commerce is illegal per se.”, Id.

【15】Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS, Inc., 441 U.S. 1 (1979).

【16】“Although the copyright laws confer no rights on copyright owners to fix prices among themselves or otherwise to violate the antitrust laws, we would not expect hat any market arrangements reasonably necessary to effectuate the rights that are granted would be deemed a per se violation of the Sherman Act.” Id.

【17】“the blanket license has provided an acceptable mechanism for at least a large part of the market for the performing rights to copyrighted musical compositions, it cannot automatically be declared illegal in all of its many manifestations. Rather, it should be subjected to a more discriminating examination under the rule of reason. ” Id.

【18】Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc. v. PSKS, Inc., 551 U.S. 877 (2007)。

【19】“the Court’s decision in Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park & Sons Co., 220 U. S. 373 (1911), is now overruled. Vertical price restraints are to be judged according to the rule of reason.” Id.

【20】Verizon Communications Inc. v. Law Offices of Courts v. Trinko, 540 U.S. 398, 124 S.Ct. 872, 157 L.Ed. 2d 823.。

【21】“[W]here a defendant maintains substantial monopoly power, his activates are examined through a special lens: Behavior that might otherwise not be of concern to the antitrust laws-or that might be viewed as precompetitive-can take on exclusionary connotations when practiced by a monopolist.” Id. at 488.

【22】Id. at 414.

作者:张宏斌

编辑:Sharon


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